Visual Studio extension development. Create add-ons and extensions for Visual Studio, including new commands, code analyzers, and tool windows. Add the SDKs and tools you need to create new commands, code analyzers, tool windows, and language services using C#. Then, share your extension with the community in the Visual Studio. C Tutorial. To learn C programming, refer these tutorials in the given order. These tutorials are written for beginners so even if you have no prior knowledge in C, you won’t face any difficulty understanding these tutorials. First C Program – Hello World! Variables and their types 3. Data types 4. Operators in C. Control Statements. A C tutorial about 'The Basics'. C (pronounced 'see-plus-plus') is an object oriented, general purpose programming language that was created in 1983 by Bjarne Stroustrup. It's used mainly for desktop software and game development, and is an extremely useful programming language to know. C runs on a variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac OS, and the various versions of UNIX. This tutorial adopts a simple and practical approach to describe the concepts of C. Audience This tutorial has been prepared for the beginners to help them understand the basic to advanced concepts related to C.
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About the Tutorial C++ is a middle-level programming language developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell Labs. C++ runs on a variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac OS, and the various versions of UNIX. This tutorial adopts a simple and practical approach to describe the concepts of C++. Audience This tutorial has been prepared for the beginners to help them understand the basic to advanced concepts related to C++. Prerequisites Before you start practicing with various types of examples given in this tutorial,we are making an assumption that you are already aware of the basics of computer program and computer programming language. Copyright & Disclaimer Copyright 2014 by Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. All the content and graphics published in this e-book are the property of Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. The user of this e-book is prohibited to reuse, retain, copy, distribute or republish any contents or a part of contents of this e-book in any manner without written consent of the publisher. We strive to update the contents of our website and tutorials as timely and as precisely as possible, however, the contents may contain inaccuracies or errors. Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. provides no guarantee regarding the accuracy, timeliness or completeness of our website or its contents including this tutorial. If you discover any errors on our website or in this tutorial, please notify us at [email protected]
Table of Contents About the Tutorial .................................................................................................................................... i Audience .................................................................................................................................................. i Prerequisites ............................................................................................................................................ i i Copyright & Disclaimer............................................................................................................................. i Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................................... i 1. OVERVIEW........................................................................................................................... 1 Object-Oriented Programming ................................................................................................................ 1 Standard Libraries ................................................................................................................................... 1 The ANSI Standard .................................................................................................................................. 1 Learning C++............................................................................................................................................ 2 Use of C++ ............................................................................................................................................... 2 2. ENVIORNMENT SETUP......................................................................................................... 3 Try it Option Online ................................................................................................................................. 3 Local Environment Setup......................................................................................................................... 3 Installing GNU C/C++ Compiler: ............................................................................................................... 4 3. BASIC SYNTAX ...................................................................................................................... 6 C++ Program Structure: ........................................................................................................................... 6 Compile & Execute C++ Program: ............................................................................................................ 7 Semicolons & Blocks in C++ ..................................................................................................................... 7 C++ Identifiers ......................................................................................................................................... 8 C++ Keywords.......................................................................................................................................... 8 Trigraphs ................................................................................................................................................. 9 Whitespace in C++ ................................................................................................................................. 10 4. COMMENTS IN C++ ........................................................................................................... 11 5. DATA TYPES ....................................................................................................................... 13 Primitive Built-in Types ......................................................................................................................... 13 typedef Declarations ............................................................................................................................. 15 ii Enumerated Types ................................................................................................................................ 16 6. VARIABLE TYPES ................................................................................................................ 17 Variable Definition in C++ ...................................................................................................................... 17 Variable Declaration in C++ ................................................................................................................... 18 Lvalues and Rvalues .............................................................................................................................. 20 7. VARIABLE SCOPE ............................................................................................................... 21 Local Variables ...................................................................................................................................... 21 Global Variables .................................................................................................................................... 22 Initializing Local and Global Variables ................................................................................................... 23 8. CONSTANTS/LITERALS ....................................................................................................... 24 Integer Literals ...................................................................................................................................... 24 Floating-point Literals ........................................................................................................................... 24 Boolean Literals..................................................................................................................................... 25 Character Literals .................................................................................................................................. 25 String Literals ........................................................................................................................................ 26 Defining Constants ................................................................................................................................ 27 9. MODIFIER TYPES................................................................................................................ 29 Type Qualifiers in C++............................................................................................................................ 30 10. STORAGE CLASSES ............................................................................................................. 31 The auto Storage Class .......................................................................................................................... 31 The register Storage Class ..................................................................................................................... 31 The static Storage Class ......................................................................................................................... 31 The extern Storage Class ....................................................................................................................... 33 The mutable Storage Class .................................................................................................................... 34 11. OPERATORS ....................................................................................................................... 35 iii Arithmetic Operators ............................................................................................................................ 35 Relational Operators ............................................................................................................................. 37 Logical Operators .................................................................................................................................. 40 Bitwise Operators ................................................................................................................................. 41 Assignment Operators........................................................................................................................... 44 Misc Operators...................................................................................................................................... 47 Operators Precedence in C++ ................................................................................................................ 48 12. LOOP TYPES ....................................................................................................................... 51 While Loop ............................................................................................................................................ 52 for Loop................................................................................................................................................. 54 do…while Loop ...................................................................................................................................... 56 nested Loops ......................................................................................................................................... 58 Loop Control Statements....................................................................................................................... 60 Break Statement ................................................................................................................................... 61 continue Statement .............................................................................................................................. 63 goto Statement ..................................................................................................................................... 65 The Infinite Loop ................................................................................................................................... 67 13. DECISION-MAKING STATEMENTS ...................................................................................... 69 If Statement .......................................................................................................................................... 70 if…else Statement ................................................................................................................................. 72 if...else if...else Statement ..................................................................................................................... 73 Switch Statement .................................................................................................................................. 75 Nested if Statement .............................................................................................................................. 78 The ? : Operator .................................................................................................................................... 81 14. FUNCTIONS ....................................................................................................................... 82 Defining a Function ............................................................................................................................... 82 iv Function Declarations ........................................................................................................................... 83 Calling a Function .................................................................................................................................. 84 Function Arguments .............................................................................................................................. 85 Call by Value ......................................................................................................................................... 86 Call by Pointer ....................................................................................................................................... 87 Call by Reference................................................................................................................................... 89 Default Values for Parameters .............................................................................................................. 90 15. NUMBERS .......................................................................................................................... 93 Defining Numbers in C++ ....................................................................................................................... 93 Math Operations in C++ ........................................................................................................................ 94 Random Numbers in C++ ....................................................................................................................... 96 16. ARRAYS .............................................................................................................................. 98 Declaring Arrays .................................................................................................................................... 98 Initializing Arrays .................................................................................................................................. 98 Accessing Array Elements ...................................................................................................................... 99 Arrays in C++ ....................................................................................................................................... 100 Pointer to an Array.............................................................................................................................. 103 Passing Arrays to Functions ................................................................................................................. 105 Return Array from Functions ............................................................................................................... 107 17. STRINGS........................................................................................................................... 111 The C-Style Character String ................................................................................................................ 111 The String Class in C++ ......................................................................................................................... 114 18. POINTERS ........................................................................................................................ 116 What are Pointers? ............................................................................................................................. 116 Using Pointers in C++........................................................................................................................... 117 Pointers in C++ .................................................................................................................................... 118 v Null Pointers ....................................................................................................................................... 119 Pointer Arithmetic............................................................................................................................... 120 Pointers vs Arrays ............................................................................................................................... 124 Array of Pointers ................................................................................................................................. 126 Pointer to a Pointer ............................................................................................................................. 128 Passing Pointers to Functions .............................................................................................................. 130 Return Pointer from Functions ............................................................................................................ 132 19. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 135 References vs Pointers ........................................................................................................................ 135 Creating References in C++ .................................................................................................................. 135 References as Parameters ................................................................................................................... 137 Reference as Return Value .................................................................................................................. 138 20. DATE AND TIME............................................................................................................... 141 Current Date and Time ........................................................................................................................ 142 Format Time using struct tm ............................................................................................................... 143 21. BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT ..................................................................................................... 145 I/O Library Header Files....................................................................................................................... 145 The Standard Output Stream (cout) .................................................................................................... 145 The Standard Input Stream (cin).......................................................................................................... 146 The Standard Error Stream (cerr) ........................................................................................................ 147 The Standard Log Stream (clog) ........................................................................................................... 148 22. DATA STRUCTURES .......................................................................................................... 149 Defining a Structure ............................................................................................................................ 149 Accessing Structure Members ............................................................................................................. 150 vi Structures as Function Arguments....................................................................................................... 151 Pointers to Structures ......................................................................................................................... 153 The typedef Keyword .......................................................................................................................... 155 23. CLASSES AND OBJECTS .................................................................................................... 157 C++ Class Definitions ........................................................................................................................... 157 Define C++ Objects .............................................................................................................................. 157 Accessing the Data Members .............................................................................................................. 158 Classes & Objects in Detail .................................................................................................................. 159 Class Access Modifiers ......................................................................................................................... 163 The public Members............................................................................................................................ 164 The private Members .......................................................................................................................... 165 The protected Members...................................................................................................................... 167 Constructor & Destructor .................................................................................................................... 169 Parameterized Constructor ................................................................................................................. 170 The Class Destructor............................................................................................................................ 173 Copy Constructor ................................................................................................................................ 174 Friend Functions .................................................................................................................................. 179 Inline Functions ................................................................................................................................... 181 this Pointer ......................................................................................................................................... 182 Pointer to C++ Classes ......................................................................................................................... 184 Static Members of a Class ................................................................................................................... 185 Static Function Members .................................................................................................................... 187 24. INHERITANCE................................................................................................................... 190 Base & Derived Classes........................................................................................................................ 190 Access Control and Inheritance ........................................................................................................... 192 vii Type of Inheritance ............................................................................................................................. 192 Multiple Inheritance ........................................................................................................................... 193 25. OVERLOADING (OPERATOR & FUNCTION) ....................................................................... 196 Function Overloading in C++ ............................................................................................................... 196 Operators Overloading in C++ ............................................................................................................. 197 Overloadable/Non-overloadable Operators ........................................................................................ 200 Operator Overloading Examples ......................................................................................................... 201 Unary Operators Overloading ............................................................................................................. 201 Increment (++) and Decrement (- -) Operators .................................................................................... 203 Binary Operators Overloading ............................................................................................................. 205 Relational Operators Overloading ....................................................................................................... 208 Input/Output Operators Overloading.................................................................................................. 210 ++ and - - Operators Overloading ........................................................................................................ 212 Assignment Operators Overloading .................................................................................................... 214 Function Call () Operator Overloading ................................................................................................. 215 Subscripting [ ] Operator Overloading ................................................................................................. 217 Class Member Access Operator - > Overloading .................................................................................. 219 26. POLYMORPHISM.............................................................................................................. 223 Virtual Function .................................................................................................................................. 226 Pure Virtual Functions ......................................................................................................................... 226 27. DATA ABSTRACTION ........................................................................................................ 227 Access Labels Enforce Abstraction ....................................................................................................... 228 Benefits of Data Abstraction ............................................................................................................... 228 Data Abstraction Example ................................................................................................................... 228 Designing Strategy .............................................................................................................................. 230 28. DATA ENCAPSULATION.................................................................................................... 231 viii Data Encapsulation Example ............................................................................................................... 232 Designing Strategy .............................................................................................................................. 233 29. INTERFACES ..................................................................................................................... 234 Abstract Class Example ....................................................................................................................... 234 Designing Strategy .............................................................................................................................. 236 30. FILES AND STREAMS ........................................................................................................ 238 Opening a File ..................................................................................................................................... 238 Closing a File ....................................................................................................................................... 239 Writing to a File ................................................................................................................................... 239 Reading from a File ............................................................................................................................. 239 Read & Write Example ........................................................................................................................ 240 File Position Pointers ........................................................................................................................... 242 31. EXCEPTION HANDLING ...................................................................................................... 243 Throwing Exceptions ........................................................................................................................... 244 Catching Exceptions ............................................................................................................................ 244 C++ Standard Exceptions ..................................................................................................................... 246 Define New Exceptions ....................................................................................................................... 247 32. DYNAMIC MEMORY ......................................................................................................... 249 The new and delete Operators ............................................................................................................ 249 Dynamic Memory Allocation for Arrays .............................................................................................. 251 Dynamic Memory Allocation for Objects ............................................................................................. 251 33. NAMESPACES .................................................................................................................. 253 Defining a Namespace ......................................................................................................................... 253 The using directive .............................................................................................................................. 254 ix Discontiguous Namespaces ................................................................................................................. 256 Nested Namespaces ............................................................................................................................ 256 34. TEMPLATES ..................................................................................................................... 258 Function Template .............................................................................................................................. 258 Class Template .................................................................................................................................... 259 35. PREPROCESSOR ............................................................................................................... 263 The #define Preprocessor .................................................................................................................... 263 Function-Like Macros .......................................................................................................................... 264 Conditional Compilation ..................................................................................................................... 264 The # and # # Operators ...................................................................................................................... 266 Predefined C++ Macros ....................................................................................................................... 268 36. SIGNAL HANDLING .......................................................................................................... 270 The signal() Function ........................................................................................................................... 270 The raise() Function............................................................................................................................. 272 37. MULTITHREADING ........................................................................................................... 274 Creating Threads ................................................................................................................................. 274 Terminating Threads ........................................................................................................................... 275 Passing Arguments to Threads ............................................................................................................ 277 Joining and Detaching Threads ............................................................................................................ 278 38. WEB PROGRAMMING...................................................................................................... 282 What is CGI? ........................................................................................................................................ 282 Web Browsing ..................................................................................................................................... 282 CGI Architecture Diagram .................................................................................................................... 282 Web Server Configuration ................................................................................................................... 283 First CGI Program ................................................................................................................................ 284 x My First CGI program .......................................................................................................................... 284 HTTP Header ....................................................................................................................................... 285 CGI Environment Variables.................................................................................................................. 285 C++ CGI Library .................................................................................................................................... 289 GET and POST Methods ....................................................................................................................... 289 Passing Information Using GET Method .............................................................................................. 289 Simple URL Example: Get Method ....................................................................................................... 290 Simple FORM Example: GET Method ................................................................................................... 291 Passing Information Using POST Method ............................................................................................ 292 Passing Checkbox Data to CGI Program ............................................................................................... 292 Passing Radio Button Data to CGI Program ......................................................................................... 294 Passing Text Area Data to CGI Program ............................................................................................... 296 Passing Dropdown Box Data to CGI Program....................................................................................... 298 Using Cookies in CGI ............................................................................................................................ 299 How It Works ...................................................................................................................................... 299 Setting up Cookies ............................................................................................................................... 300 Retrieving Cookies............................................................................................................................... 301 File Upload Example ............................................................................................................................ 303 39. STL TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................. 306 40. STANDARD LIBRARY......................................................................................................... 309 The Standard Function Library ............................................................................................................ 309 The Object Oriented Class Library ....................................................................................................... 309 xi 1. OVERVIEW C++ C++ is a statically typed, compiled, general-purpose, case-sensitive, free-form programming language that supports procedural, object-oriented, and generic programming. C++ is regarded as a middle-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, as an enhancement to the C language and originally named C with Classes but later it was renamed C++ in 1983. C++ is a superset of C, and that virtually any legal C program is a legal C++ program. Note: A programming language is said to use static typing when type checking is performed during compile-time as opposed to run-time. Object-Oriented Programming C++ fully supports object-oriented programming, including the four pillars of object-oriented development: Encapsulation Data hiding Inheritance Polymorphism Standard Libraries Standard C++ consists of three important parts: The core language giving all the building blocks including variables, data types and literals, etc. The C++ Standard Library giving a rich set of functions manipulating files, strings, etc. The Standard Template Library (STL) giving a rich set of methods manipulating data structures, etc. The ANSI Standard The ANSI standard is an attempt to ensure that C++ is portable; that code you write for Microsoft's compiler will compile without errors, using a compiler on a Mac, UNIX, a Windows box, or an Alpha. 1 C++ The ANSI standard has been stable for a while, and all the major C++ compiler manufacturers support the ANSI standard. Learning C++ The most important thing while learning C++ is to focus on concepts. The purpose of learning a programming language is to become a better programmer; that is, to become more effective at designing and implementing new systems and at maintaining old ones. C++ supports a variety of programming styles. You can write in the style of Fortran, C, Smalltalk, etc., in any language. Each style can achieve its aims effectively while maintaining runtime and space efficiency. Use of C++ C++ is used by hundreds of thousands of programmers in essentially every application domain. C++ is being highly used to write device drivers and other software that rely on direct manipulation of hardware under real-time constraints. C++ is widely used for teaching and research because it is clean enough for successful teaching of basic concepts. Anyone who has used either an Apple Macintosh or a PC running Windows has indirectly used C++ because the primary user interfaces of these systems are written in C++. 2 2. ENVIORNMENT SETUP C++ Try it Option Online You really do not need to set up your own environment to start learning C++ programming language. Reason is very simple, we have already set up C++ Programming environment online, so that you can compile and execute all the available examples online at the same time when you are doing your theory work. This gives you confidence in what you are reading and to check the result with different options. Feel free to modify any example and execute it online. Try the following example using our online compiler option available at http://www.compileonline.com/ #include using namespace std; int main() { cout 2 will give 15 which is 0000 1111 Try the following example to understand all the bitwise operators available in C++. Copy and paste the following C++ program in test.cpp file and compile and run this program. #include using namespace std; main() { unsigned int a = 60; // 60 = 0011 1100 unsigned int b = 13; // 13 = 0000 1101 int c = 0; c = a & b; // 12 = 0000 1100 cout isEmpty() && fi != (*formData).end()) { cout
C++ (pronounced 'see-plus-plus') is an object oriented, general purpose programming language that was created in 1983 by Bjarne Stroustrup. It's used mainly for desktop software and game development, and is an extremely useful programming language to know.
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So to start C++ programming, you'll need some way to write your C++ code, and then also a compiler which turns that code into something that your computer can directly read (often called 'machine language'). If you're using the Mac OS X operating system or a Linux distribution, I'd recommend using any text editor of your choice to write your code (I particularly like Sublime Text 2), and then using the 'g++' compiler to compile your code via the Terminal. For (Mac) OS X, g++ can be very easily installed as it comes bundled along with XCode.
Another popular choice for C++ coding and compilation is using an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) in which you can write and compile your code. For OS X you might want to use XCode if you're feeling worried about the g++ route (g++ can be a little complicated), and if you're using Windows, popular IDEs include Code::Blocks, which I personally recommend however does require some setup at the start (you may need to do some research), and Visual C++ Express, which is much easier to set up, however will require some sort of application pausing before the end of the 'main' function in most cases as it generates a window which will disappear after execution. If you decide to go with Visual C++ Express, just keep this in mind -- you may wish to put the
system('PAUSE'); or _getch(); lines before the end of your 'main' function (the latter of which requires you to #include <conio.h> ) -- if you don't understand what this means, you will soon enough.
So by this point, you should have your development environment properly set up (even if you don't entirely know how to use it yet). If you're using an IDE, create a new C++ project, often called a 'console project', and remove any code/text which is generated for you, and if you're using a separate text editor and compiler, just create a new file with the '.cpp' extension (the file extension for C++ source files) - I'm going to name mine 'project.cpp'.
To start off with, we're just going to add what's called a 'comment' to the top of our file which says that we've written the program. Comments are simply notes that you write (to either yourself, your team, or whoever else might see the code) that the C++ compiler completely ignores, and so these don't affect how your application actually runs. We can do single-line comments in C++ by using a double slash (
// ) and multi-line comments using /* to start the comment, and */ to end the comment. Take, for example, the following:
After a comment on your top line (which isn't entirely necessary), we need to 'include' a few things before we begin writing our main application logic. When we 'include' things in C++, we're simply taking pieces of pre-written code from a file - as such, includes are usually done at the start of a section of code so that the functionality can be used in the rest of the code. In this case we want to include the 'iostream' file (which stands for input output stream) so we can output and take in basic text data. These includes always start with a hash symbol (
# ), and then use the include keyword followed by the name of the file we wish to include (which we specify, in this case, in angle brackets):
As alluded to earlier, the stuff inside 'iostream' is for inputting and outputting text. The two most well-known things in here are called
cout and cin (pronounced 'see-out' and 'see-in'), which are for outputting data and getting data from the user. These both, however, require the 'std' namespace - I'm not going to go into great detail about namespaces right now, but essentially just think about different namespaces as different drawers. A lot of the core C++ standard stuff is in the 'std' drawer and we can specify this by either writing std:: before every time we write cout , cin , and other things which require it, or for our simple purposes here, we can just use the namespace throughout out whole document. This is done by writing the using keyword, followed by the namespace keyword, followed by the namespace name, in this case, std :
Notice that I also finished the line by using a semicolon (
; ) - lines are often finished with a semicolon in C++ to show that the instruction or the line has finished. In this case, we're telling the compiler that we're done specifying the namespace by writing the semicolon.
With the top part of our document setup, we can actually begin writing our program's point of entry. All basic C++ programs start at what is called the 'main' function. A function is just a piece of code with a name, and that name, in this case, is 'main'. Functions also have a type, generally speaking the 'main' function should have the integer (whole number) type, and this is shown by writing the
int keyword before the function name. This function type means that inside the function we must have a line which returns an integer value - don't worry too much about what this means right now, but if we return '0' from main, it generally means that we did everything without any errors. After we've written the function's name, we have to specify some brackets (which some people populate with some things, but we're going to leave them empty), and then some curly brackets which will actually contain our main application code. For now, I'm just going to put a comment in there. Our code so far should look as follows:
Notice that I put a tab-space before the comment - this is because the comment is inside the 'main' function and I wanted to visually show this. Indented code isn't necessary for your code to compile and run correctly, however it makes finding errors a hell of a lot easier, and if you don't do it, nobody will like you (or want to work with you!).
While we're talking about the 'main' function itself, let's put in that 'return' line we talked about earlier so that our main function abides to its type. This is done by simply writing the
return keyword followed by the value which you want to return, followed by a semicolon - so in this case, return 0; . This will actually stop our 'main' function's execution though, so we want it to be the very last line of the function:
From here, we're going to complete our basic program by simply getting it to output 'Hello World!' (or text of your choice) to the screen. As alluded to earlier, this is done by using
cout (which, remember, is in the std namespace). We can output a combination of different letters, numbers, and symbols, known as a string, by writing the cout keyword, followed by insertion operators, << , followed by our string which is represented by wrapping in double quotes. We also need a semicolon to end the line.
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The way
cout works, is essentially that you can just put insertion operators after each piece of data you want to output to output some more. Numbers don't have to be surrounded in double quotes to be processed in the correct way be the compiler, so if we wanted to output a number after our 'Hello World!' piece of text, we could either put it inside our string, which would encapsulate the data, or we could put it after another set of insertion operators (and move the semicolon to the 'new' end of the line):
You should try to get used to this functionality. Without looking at the snippet below which reveals the answer, try to create a basic
cout which would output a sentence with a number in the middle.
We can add newlines to this output by either writing a backslash followed by the letter 'n' in a string (remember that strings are encapsulated by double quotes), or by using the
endl keyword after some insertion operators. So our final piece of code which we're going to compile and run (which I've commented a bit to make it easier to understand), is as follows:
To compile and run the code in an IDE, you can usually just hit a conveniently placed 'Run' or 'Debug' button (Key shortcuts of F8 in Code::Blocks, F5 in Visual C++ Express, and ⌘+R in XCode), however the process of compiling and running is slightly more confusing when you have a separate text editor and compiler. If this is the case, save the file with the code we've written (and with the '.cpp' file extension, so call it something like 'project.cpp'), and then open up a Terminal window (if you don't know how to do this in your OS, Google it). You can then navigate to wherever your project file (i.e. 'project.cpp') is stored using the 'cd' command (again, you'll have to Google if you don't know how to do this), and then run some compilation and running commands which are compiler and OS-specific. If you're using g++, you can run
g++ -o project project.cpp to compile the code in 'project.cpp' to a file named 'project', and then on OS X and Linux you can run ./project to run the generated 'project' file (and hence the program) itself.
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In future tutorials I will expect you to know how to compile and run code in your own development environment, so it'd probably be a good idea for you to create a few C++ projects and compile/run them to get used to your development environment. As a little challenge to tie off the information in this tutorial (which will, of course, be built upon in future tutorials), try writing another
cout line after the one we've already written that outputs something else.
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